Chapter 25: The West and the World

Lion's Den, Disused Old Zoo, Groote Schuur Estate, Cape Town
“It is believed that Rhodes had a fondness for the lion as ‘King of Beasts’
and symbolising the dreams and aspirations of the British Empire.”

 
Introduction: This chapter investigates the many sides to the “new imperialism” of Europe, describing the development of a world economy, patterns of emigration from Europe, the growth of European imperialism in the late nineteenth century, and how it affected both western and non-western societies.

Objective: To extend and reinforce my knowledge of new imperialism and European history between 1850 and 1914 by analyzing images and exploring the connections the content of the chapter has across continents and time.

Essential Question

How was Europe’s large number of emigrants near the turn of the century related to the imperialist expansion of its nations?  Many emigrants who left Europe during this period moved to a European colony. This means that imperialism affected migration by providing places for the people to go that weren’t entirely foreign. However, migration in turn affected imperialism greatly, because the rising number of Europeans in colonized regions strengthened western power and influence on the rest of the world, while also in many cases provoking the resentment of native peoples.

Political Cartoons

“The White (?) Man’s Burden.”

This political cartoon depicts the natives of various colonized regions carrying on their backs representatives of the countries who claimed them. This represents the hardships endured by native peoples for the sake of benefiting imperialistic western nations. Further satire is added to the cartoon by its caption, “The White (?) Man’s Burden,” because the question mark is implying that the true burden is carried by the people of the regions affected by European territorial expansion. I completely agree with the message of this cartoon, because from the perspective of modern-day society it is clear that European exertion of control in the rest of the world generally worsened rather than improved the lives of the natives, contrary to the opinion of those who believed in the “white man’s burden.”

Alfred Hiscocks, 1904

This cartoon shows a colossal Japanese soldier marching from his home country to Australia. He carries with him a bloody knife and a can of brown paint. The knife symbolizes the Japanese use of force to acquire territory during the era of new imperialism. The paint symbolizes Japanese control of or victory over the nations labeled “All Brown,” and now the soldier has his imperialistic sights set on Australia and the surrounding islands. This drawing is an expression of the fear among Australians, New Zealanders and other British subjects that Japan would attempt to gain control over the southeastern part of the globe, which was intensified by Japan’s new imperialistic and military power. I personally believe that the artist was justified in guessing that this would happen, but today we know that the Japanese never colonized the area.

US Imperialism Cartoon

{ Click the image to view a larger caption. }

This cartoon deals with the pervasiveness of imperialism throughout American history. The overweight man, who represents America, has “eaten” a large amount of regions, which are written on his pants. Those listed include recent gains, such as Hawaii, as well as those a little further in the past, like the Louisiana Purchase. The man is being measured by a tailor who resembles and represents William McKinley, the 25th President of the United States. When the “Antis,” or anti-imperialists, suggest that the man lose his colonial weight, he dismissively states that he never has or will. I agree with this cartoon, because what I know about the history of American expansion strongly supports the opinion that the United States was an imperialistic nation like those in Europe.

Is the US Imperialistic?

I strongly believe that the United States is imperialistic and has been throughout history. To say that it’s not implies that America hasn’t annexed, occupied, or otherwise dominated any large quantity of countries or regions, and I believe that it has clearly done so. Our nation started out with 830,000 square miles of land that were ceded by Britain, and now we control close to 4 million and possess sixteen islands besides Hawaii. Our record in the past is not any better; our list of territories previously owned by other nations includes Texas, California, Hawaii, Alaska, the Philippines, Louisiana, and others.


Arguments that the US is imperialistic: 

The promotion of “manifest destiny” sparked a period of westward expansion that displaced numerous Native Americans.
America annexed the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico in 1898, during the height of imperialism.
The US has a strong presence in the Middle East that has resulted in the strengthening of American power and influence.


Arguments that the US is not imperialistic:

The United States intervenes in foreign affairs for reasons of moral necessity rather than political strategy or interest in expansion.
After World War II, US leaders decided to bring the soldiers home, passing up a clear opportunity for the domination of defeated European states.
American territories are given a respectable degree of self-government that is not typically given by imperialistic world powers.

US Events

1898: The Annexation of Hawaii

Lowering of the Hawaiian flag on Annexation Day

Hawaii has a rocky political history, being ruled by multiple native governments as well as the British at one point. The former Kingdom of Hawaii had expected eventual annexation by the United States since the deposition of its monarch Queen Lili‘uokalani in 1893. However, this did not happen during the presidency of Grover Cleveland, who was an anti-imperialist and strongly opposed annexation. William McKinley resumed efforts to acquire the land while in office, and in 1898 the Newlands Resolution was passed and the Republic of Hawaii became the Territory of Hawaii, which would last until its final statehood in 1959. This group of islands was important to American interests for reasons including its fruit trade and its strategic military position in the Pacific Ocean.

The United States’ claiming of Hawaii bears many similarities to European expansions. Both generally involved a mostly white nation ruling over a region mostly populated by non-white natives. They took advantage of the instability of other countries’ governments as an opportunity to take control over them, for reasons that include trade opportunities and the military advantage of distant land. Additionally, the inhabitants of the once-independent nation mourned the imposition of a foreign government, like the natives of a great deal of colonies.

1914: Completion of the Panama Canal

The first official navigation of the Panama Canal

Construction of the Panama Canal was first started by France in 1880 and led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who also built the Suez Canal. This project became bankrupt, and in 1904 the United States acquired the canal and started work on it under the direction of President Theodore Roosevelt. In 1914 the canal was completed, and the first ship officially traveled across it the same month that World War I began. The construction project was the largest the United States had ever undertaken at the time, and reinforced American influence in South America. The canal was and is still important for the shortcut it provides between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, making it no longer necessary for vessels to make the lengthy and dangerous voyage around the tip of South America.

The Panama Canal is similar to the Suez Canal on the other side of the world. Both were constructed by foreign nations with the goal of facilitating water transport of cargo, and are still used for this purpose today. Besides this primary function, the two canals have also played roles in wars, particularly World War II and the Arab-Israeli Wars. Additionally, both were started by the French with de Lesseps as chief engineer.

Colonial Uprising

The Maji Maji Rebellion

The leaders of the revolt who were executed by Germany

The Maji Maji Rebellion was an interethnic revolt by the people of East Africa under German colonial rule. It took place from 1905 to 1907 in what is now Tanzania. It began after the governor of East Africa, Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen, implemented a policy forcing the African natives to grow cotton as a cash crop. The backbreaking work involved in this, as well as the other ways in which it would disrupt the lives of workers and their families, incited anger from the native peoples. A spirit medium named Kinjikitile Ngwale, who called himself “Bokero,” told followers that they had been chosen to rid their homeland of the Germans and used traditional African religion and magic to gather support and begin fighting. The namesake of the rebellion was a key element of native war technique; a medicine called maji, made from water, castor oil and millet seeds, was purported by Ngwale and his followers to turn German bullets into water. This gave the revolting warriors confidence to fight the German military, but they were quickly defeated. While this landmark African rebellion did not meet its goal, it did prompt the German government to institute some reforms.

Rebellion Today

Libya

 Al Jazeera: Libyan “Day of Rage”

Libya has seen a tumultuous few years, even for its already shaky history since the beginning of Muammar Qaddafi’s rule there. The oppressive leader had been in power for 41 years, and protests in a couple of Libyan cities (see video above) escalated into a full-scale civil war by February of 2011. This revolution is a noteworthy example of a true citizens’ uprising in response to an oppressive government, and is one of the main rebellions of the Arab Spring. Key players are not as much individuals as Libyan society in general; the citizens have worked together to protest and overthrow their government. One important person in the movement is Mustafa Abdul Jalil, the chairman of the National Transitional Council, the provisionary government of Libya. The uprising has met its primary goal, the deposition of Muammar Qaddafi, and on October 20, 2011, the former leader was killed by the NTC.

Click here to view a slideshow by Yuri Kozyrev, a photographer who chronicled the Battle of Tripoli as part of a project for TIME, “On Revolution Road.” Hovering the mouse over each photo will display a caption, many of which have historical background information.

Spotlight on the Suez Canal

Suez Canal Authority building, Port Said, Egypt

The Suez Canal is a man-made waterway that runs between the Mediterranean and Red Seas. At its north end is Port Said, and at the south is Port Tawfiq. It is located in Egypt, and owned by the Egyptian government’s Suez Canal Authority; however, international treaties make it available to any trade or war ship, regardless of nationality. The canal is nicknamed the “Highway to India,” and is used daily for water transportation between Europe and Asia. According to the Suez Canal Authority’s annual reports, over 646 million tons of cargo were transported using the canal in 2010.

3-2-1 Summary

Proclaiming annexation of New Guinea, 1884

Three things I learned:

European nations encountered a renewed interest in territorial acquisitions during the late nineteenth century.

Japan responded to Western expansion by becoming an imperialist power itself.

Colonies were not significantly beneficial to their mother country’s economies before 1914.

Two things I found interesting:

The vast continent of Africa was split up and claimed by European nations very quickly.

Nearly all of the new empires in this era were dismantled in less than a century.

One question I have:

What were the reasons that countries such as Italy were not competitors in the race for land?

Chapter 22: Ideologies and Upheavals

This chapter outlines the various changes and movements in politics, economics, philosophy, art, and many other aspects of society that occurred between roughly 1815 and 1850. Among these are the Congress of Vienna, the conservative assembly that restored much of what Napoleon had changed; the revolutions of 1848 and their numerous motivations and characteristics; the policies of Klemens von Metternich and others who attempted to suppress these revolts; the legislation being passed in Britain and the reactions it prompted, including the Corn Laws; and the movements of conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, socialism, communism, and romanticism.

Objective: Learning more about the content of this chapter and other important people and events from the first half of the nineteenth century, and understanding how they relate to the contemporary movements and revolutions.

Essential Question

What role did “isms” play in the revolutions of 1848? The ideologies that emerged in nineteenth-century Europe played a significant role in the revolutions and citizen uprisings of 1848. Philosophies and ideas (“isms”), most of which were political or economical, spread among the citizens of European nations. Much of the population was dissatisfied with their current governmental or socioeconomic situation, especially due to the changes made by Napoleon and the Industrial Revolution. The new ideologies inspired and empowered them to attempt to fix things, leading to the revolutions that European nations faced in 1848.

People in the News

Charles Fourier

Charles Fourier (1760-1825) was a prominent French Utopian socialist whose ideas were seen as very radical during his time, but became much more influential after his death. He sought to liberate each individual through education and the expression of human passion. His way of thinking was mathematical and idealistic, which is apparent in his plans for “phalanxes,” or Utopian planned communities of 1,620 people. In his opinion wealth should be determined by one’s profession, and he sought to eliminate poverty more than the entire class structure. He was also a women’s rights advocate and coined the word feminism. Fourier’s socialist philosophies are said to have contributed to the 1848 Revolution in France and the Paris Commune, and many Utopian communities were inspired by his ideas, notably La Reunion in Texas.

Victor Hugo

To this day one of the best-known romantic writers is Victor Hugo (1802-1885) from France. Hugo wrote an enormous amount of work which included books, poems, and plays, and he even produced a comparable quantity of drawings. Hugo developed his attitude of romanticism around the time he began to support Napoleon I as a young man. He often eloquently mixed political opinions with general thoughts and insightful observations in his writing, such as in this passage from his novel Les Misérables (1862), a universally recognized work whose musical adaptation was recently performed at the Community Arts Center in Williamsport:

“The daylight of history is merciless; it has the strange and magical quality that, although it is composed of light, and precisely because of this, it casts shadows where once only brilliance was to be seen, making of one man two images, each opposed to the other, so that the darkness of the despot counteracts the majesty of the leader.”

Hugo was an involved and outspoken republican who strongly advocated liberty and pacifism. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly and the Constitutional Assembly before being exiled from France when Napoleon III took power. Because of his involvement in politics, many of the works authored by Victor Hugo portray or symbolize the situation in France and Europe at the time, making them especially useful for the study of history. In addition, a large number of his stories are widely recognized today, including Notre-Dame de Paris (known in English as The Hunchback of Notre-Dame).

Ludwig van Beethoven

It is not truly necessary to explain the level of fame that the German composer Ludwig van Beethoven has attained, as he is arguably the most widely known romantic musician. Living in Vienna, the same city as musical giants Haydn and Mozart, he established a steady career and developed a writing style that has profoundly influenced later generations of musicians. His compositions are frequently played even today, and the songs “Für Elise” and “Moonlight Sonata” would likely be recognized by anyone reading this. Recordings of these two pieces can be heard here: 

“Für Elise”

“Moonlight Sonata”

Beethoven helped to bridge the classical and romantic periods in music, incorporating both styles into his own work and persuading other composers to explore romanticism. This was appreciated quickly. During his life he was admired for his striking and masterful creations and his piano virtuosity, helping motivate him to continue composing for the remainder of his life, even after he completely lost his hearing. This passion for his work has benefited the world, giving us timeless and inspired musical classics.

Connection Across Continents

The Emergence of the Abolitionist Movement

William Lloyd Garrison

Since the birth of the United States there were people who believed that slavery should be illegal; however, the growth of abolitionism, or opposition to slavery, as an influential movement didn’t occur until the early to mid-1800s. William Lloyd Garrison is often considered the leader of this early movement, dedicating remarkable effort to the cause. Some of the ways he helped spread his ideas include the founding of the American Antislavery Society and his abolitionist newspaper, the Liberator. Abolitionism grew to become a large movement around the 1830s. Garrison’s organizations grew to over 1000 chapters, the Liberator and other newspapers with similar opinions saw greater circulation, and slavery became a more prominent political issue than ever before. A large number of slavery supporters also began reacting strongly to abolitionism at this time, both peacefully and violently.

The abolitionist movement in America is similar to that of the Chartists in England. Both held progressive views and sought to pass legislation that gave certain people more freedom, whether it was the freedom of all men to vote or of all people to live without an owner. They challenged the status quo and pushed what many thought were radical ideas allowing people too much liberty. However, both of these groups today would not have lived up to modern expectations of social equality. The vast majority of early abolitionists did not believe that African-Americans should have the same legal rights or be treated the same way in society, but only that they should not be subjected to forced labor. Similarly, the Chartists did not go so far as to support suffrage for all citizens, but only men. However, considering the mainstream views of the time, both were noble movements that believed in a freer world.

The Indian Removal Act

“Trail of Tears” by Robert Lindneux

The Indian Removal Act, passed in 1830 under Andrew Jackson, displaced innumerable Native Americans from their homes and made them move to the West. Technically the law only called for the voluntary and peaceful relocation of Indians east of the Mississippi River, but in practice the tribes wishing to remain in their own state were compelled to leave, sometimes forcibly. The reason for this removal was to free the land the Native Americans occupied, especially in Georgia, where a dispute was occurring over Cherokee land. The rest of the South, a region Jackson clearly favored, was also eager to use the land inhabited by the Indians and strongly supported the legislation. The journey made by the displaced people is often called the Trail of Tears.

The Indian Removal Act can be compared to the suppression of revolution in the Austrian Empire. The governments of Austria and the US both exerted their rule over ethnic minorities (Native Americans and Hungarians) because of conflicting interests. US leaders and the Indians both wanted the land inhabited by the latter, and Austrian leaders and Hungarians both wanted to rule over Hungary. In both cases the established authorities won, using force to subdue their opponents if necessary. The outcomes of these events are unfortunate examples of greed as well as disregard for the views and desires of people who are seen as different because of their ethnicity.

Picturing the Past

“Le Radeau de la Méduse” by Théodore Géricault (1818-1819)

This painting, known as “The Raft of Medusa” in English, depicts people boarding a raft after the wrecking of the French ship Méduse off the coast of Mauritania in 1816. The event indirectly resulted in over one hundred deaths, and was widely used to criticize King Louis XVIII for appointing an incompetent captain, although he did not actually have any involvement in it. Géricault, a Frenchman, was a pioneer of the Romantic movement and is best known for this painting, which is larger than actual size.

Analyzing the image: What emotion and tone does this painting invoke? How does the scenery in the background reinforce this? Based on the subject matter and style, what political statements could Géricault be making?

Connections: How might the public at that time have reacted to this, and why? Which elements of romanticism can be identified in the work, in terms of both the painting style and the content?

3-2-1 Summary

Three things I learned: 

The restoration of most of the monarchs in nations affected by Napoleon’s rule was done by a single institution, the Congress of Vienna.

The economic and political changes of this time period were closely related and are often referred to as a dual revolution.

Ireland was the only European country whose population declined in the nineteenth century.

Two things I found interesting:

Revolutions occurred in multiple European nations in 1848, and all of them failed.

The potato crop was such a crucial part of the average Irish person’s diet that its failure was devastating and caused a significant population decrease.

One question I have:

What was the Congress of Vienna’s motivation for allowing France to keep so much of its territory?